How Agriculture Can Be Used to Combat Climate Change in Developing Countries

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ESSAY ON THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES PRESENTED BY; MWAURA PHILIP W DATE; 25TH MARCH 2013 INTRODUCTION Climate change is now recognised as one of the most serious challenges facing the world – its people, the environment and its economies. There is now clear scientific evidence that the high concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere is causing global warming. While the world has experienced climatic changes before, the issue we now face involves human influence.It is a challenge that must and can be dealt with because its impacts will have very dire consequences on us and the generations to come. Greenhouse emmissions results from various sources in our societies. We have emmissions from industries and other human activities such as agricultural practises. It is believed that most global warming we can now observe is attributable to emissions of GHGs that result from human activities, i n particular land use changes such as deforestation, and the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas).All these activities are human influenced and thus something needs to be done at the local, regional and globals levels. This essay highlights the role of agriculture in tackling climate change and some of the mitigation and adaptation measures. CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) define climate change as the term generally used to describe human influences on the climate. The most significant threat is the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which contribute to the ‘greenhouse effect’.The greenhouse effect is a natural mechanism essential to life on Earth, but human activity has altered the balance in the mechanism. Radiant energy emitted by the sun comes through the Earth’s atmosphere and warms its surface. This heat then radiates back into the atmosphere, but some of the sun‘s heat is absorbed in the at mosphere by gases. With increasing concentration of GHGs, this effect is amplified, thus increasing the Earth‘s temperature. There is now little doubt that climate change is happening. Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. The observed widespread warming of the atmosphere and ocean, together with ice mass loss, support the conclusion that it is very likely that it is not due to known natural causes alone†. These are some of the conclusions of the latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007). Countries and individuals acknowledge the extent of the climate change problem and have agreed that it exists and needs to be addressed.Agriculture can be defined as the spatial distribution of of crops and animals for commercial and subsistence purposes all over the earth’s surfaces. The Food and Agricul ture Organization (FAO, 2008) reports that agriculture and land-use change, such as deforestation, account for about 13 and 17 per cent, respectively of total GHG emissions from human activities. Changes in land use such as deforestation and soil degradation are two devastating effects of unsustainable farming practices that emit large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.Agriculture is a major contributor to emmissions of methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O) and Carbon( iv)oxide (C02). On a global scale, agricultural land use in the 1990s has been responsible for approximately 15% of all the GHGs emmissions. One third of all carbon(iv)oxide comes from land-use changes such as shifting cultivation and intensification of agriculture whereas about two thirds of methane and most nitrous oxide emmisions originate from agriculture ( FAO, 2008). In addition to the direct agriculture emissions mentioned above, the production of agrochemicals is another import ant source of greenhouse gas emissions.Especially the life cycle of fertiliser contributes significantly to the overall impact of industrialized agriculture. The greatest source of GHG emissions from fertiliser production is the energy required, which emits carbon dioxide during its manufacture. Animal farming has a wide range of different impacts, ranging from the direct emissions of livestock, manure management, use of agrochemicals and land use change to fossil fuel use. Climate change presents a dual challenge which involves how to reduce GHG emissions through itigation, while lessening the adverse impacts by adaptation. These challenges are evident in the agricultural sector where a changing climate will have serious impacts on agriculture and food production. A rise in temperature will result into the following impacts( FAO 2008); * affect food supply dramatically by shifting crop growing zones; * change the habitats of pests; * increase risks of plant disease, insects and wee ds; * shrink the area of cropland due to floods; and * raise sea levels. Potential direct effects on agricultural systems: Seasonal changes in rainfall and temperature could impact agro-climatic conditions, altering growing seasons, planting and harvesting calendars, water availability, pest, weed and disease populations, etc. * Evapotranspiration, photosynthesis and biomass production is altered. * Land suitability is altered. * Increased Carbon(iv) oxide levels lead to a positive growth responsefor a number of staples under controlled conditions, alsoknown as the â€Å"carbon fertilization effect†. MITIGATION Agriculture offers options to reduce CHGs significantly.One of them is to reduce emmissions and thereby minimise the production of anthropogenic gases such as methane and carbon(iv)oxide whereas at the same time increasing food production to achieve food security especially in developing countries. Mitigation is a response strategy to global climate change, and can be defined as measures that reduce the amount of emissions (abatement) or enhance the absorption capacity of greenhouse gases (sequestration). The total global potential for mitigation depends on many factors, including emissions levels, availability of technology, enforcement, and incentives.In many situations, the efficiency of agriculture can be improved at a low cost. However, when low cost incentives are unavailable, policy development is important. Mitigating GHG emissions from the agricultural sector will be an important element of climate change and agriculture policy at the national and international levels, and especially so in developing countries where 75 per cent of poor people live in rural areas, most of whom depend on agriculture for their livelihoods directly or indirectly (World Bank, 2008).The Bali Action Plan (BAP), agreed to at COP 13 in December, 2007, identified four pillars to address in reaching a new agreement–mitigation, adaptation, technology developm ent and transfer, and financing and investment. The BAP calls for mitigation actions by all developed countries, including quantified GHG emission reductions objectives, as well as mitigation actions in developing countries, â€Å"that are supported and enabled by technology, financing and capacity building in a measurable, reportable and verifiable manner† (UNFCCC, 2007, p. 1).Agriculture could be an important component of a new climate change agreement, addressing two priorities of the BAP; * Mitigation ; Agriculture must play a role in climate change mitigation by storing carbon in soils, reducing its GHG emissions (for example, transportation and livestock) and providing fossil fuel offsets from biomass; and * Adaptation ; Agriculture must adapt to new climatic conditions (increased temperatures, drought, increased climatic variations, among others) to ensure a sufficient food supply for the world and contribute to the maintenance of rural livelihoods and viable rural eco nomies.Emission reductions in the agricultural sector can also be a meaningful way for many developing countries to contribute to the goal of the convention and participate in a future regime. The IPCC report estimates that 70 per cent of the mitigation potential in agriculture is in developing countries (Smith et al. , 2007). Sustainable agricultural practices that mitigate carbon can have important co-benefits, including increased soil fertility and productivity, enhanced resistance to drought and extreme weather, and better capacity to adapt to climate change.Sustainable agriculture can contribute significantly to increased food production, as well as make a significant impact on rural people’s welfare and livelihoods. Despite the significant potential and important sustainable development benefits, minimal progress has been made to capitalize on opportunities in this sector, mainly because of complexities, perceived or otherwise, around accounting, monitoring, verificatio n, non-permanence and other issues.Mitigation measures in the agricultural sector could contribute to substantial GHG emission reductions up to 2030 with potential ranges from 5 to 20 per cent of total Carbon(iv) oxide emissions by 2030. The global technical mitigation potential of agriculture, excluding fossil fuel offsets from biomass, is estimated to be between 5. 5 and 6 Gigatonnes Carbon(iv) oxide emmissions per year by 2030 (Smith et al. , 2007). However, actually meeting this potential is a complex issue with both technical and economic challenges.An estimated, 89 per cent of the total potential can be achieved by soil carbon sequestration through crop-land management, grazing land management, restoration of organic soils and degraded lands, bio-energy and water management (Smith et al. , 2007). Developed countries are discussing if agricultural soil carbon sequestration should be included in overall accounting of emissions and removals, and how to provide incentives in the a rea of agriculture for developing countries (UNFCCC, 2009).Intensity targets in the agricultural sector are also an issue, recognizing the fact that food production will need to increase to keep pace with rising populations and improvements in standards of living. Mitigation of Methane can provide an additional 9 per cent through improvements in rice management, and livestock and manure management. The remaining 2 per cent can be achieved from mitigation of Nitrous(ii)oxide emissions from soils mainly through crop management (Smith et al. , 2007).The wide diversity of agricultural practices around the world means there is a corresponding large array of possible mitigation opportunities. Agricultural Emissions Mitigation in Developing Countries Developing countries play a central role in agricultural GHG emissions mitigation. Without sufficient mitigation of GHG emissions in coming decades, including those from agriculture, there will likely be severe negative impacts on natural and human systems, including global food supply and food security, and developing countries are most at risk.The technical potential for GHG mitigation in developing countries’ agriculture by 2030 indicates significantopportunities for emissions reductions, together with anenhanced income earning potential for farmers, and associatedbenefits from lower natural resource degradation(Smith et al. , 2007). The agricultural sector is more vulnerable to climate change in developing countries than developed nations, which is a real concern because agriculture in developing countries is a major food provider.Agricultural practices must adapt to changing climatic conditions to ensure sufficient global food supply, while implementing management practices that have the greatest GHG emission reduction potential. Approximately 30 per cent of GHG emissions reduction potential from agriculture can be achieved in developed countries and 70 per cent in developing countries (Smith et al. , 2007).T he mitigation potential of developing countries is about 75 to 80 per cent of the global potential for soil carbon under bio-energy and the restoration of degraded lands; roughly 90 per cent for grazing land management; and 98 per cent for rice management, water management, set-aside management and agro-forestry. Approximately 89 per cent of the technical mitigation potential in the agricultural sector can be achieved through soil carbon sequestration and about two-thirds of this potential is in developing countries (Smith et al. , 2007).The largest mitigation potentials in agriculture are the restoration of cultivated organic soils and degraded lands, and rice management; developing countries have the largest mitigation potentials. Mitigation is generally most cost effective in developing nations. The Food Agriculture Organization report (2008) estimates that mitigation measures in developing countries through agriculture and forestry projects might cost about one-fourth to one-thi rd of total mitigation in all sectors and regions, while generating one-half to two-thirds of all estimated GHG emission reductions.With growing agricultural GHG emissions and the largest and most cost-effective mitigation opportunities in the agricultural sector, developing countries are likely to play a prominent role in efforts to reduce agricultural GHG emissions. However, these countries also have the greatest barriers to overcome. At the national level, agriculture may be eclipsed by other priorities in many developing countries, such as poverty alleviation. A lack of capacity and political will to encourage mitigation are also contributing factors, where efforts in the agricultural sector are mainly focused on securing food for a growing population.Agricultural policy is viewed by many countries as a sovereign right that is linked to food security, meaning that they are reluctant to open up this sector to any perceived control by an international body. Barriers are often coun try or region-related and understanding the situation in different countries is crucial to realizing the mitigation potential in the agricultural sector. Responses to climate change in these countries should involve measures that aim to reduce poverty and ensure food security (FAO, 2008). Developing countries will require technology ransfer,investment and financial support to implement relevant mitigation strategies in the agricultural sector. And these programs will need to be developed with full consideration of economic and sustainable development. Such programs will need to include methods for verifying and validating GHG emission reductions from agricultural activities and for comparing the effectiveness of various mitigation options, as well as the associated environmental, economic and social benefits and impacts for the overall production cycle.The economic potential for mitigation in agriculture depends on the price of carbon and on policy, institutional,and transaction cos t constraints. To date little progress hasbeen made in the implementation of mitigation measures at the global level. The potential for GHG mitigationwould be enhanced by an appropriate internationalclimate policy framework providing policy and economicincentives. The emerging market for carbon emissions trading offersnew possibilities for agriculture to benefit from land usethat sequesters carbon or saves non Carbon(iv)oxide emissions.TheClean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the KyotoProtocol of the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the most importantmechanism for payments to developing countries. Currently, the CDM limits eligible activities in agricultureto afforestation and reforestation, and reduction of non- Carbon(iv) oxide gases. Hence carbon sequestration activities, such asconservation tillage and restoration of degraded soils, arepresently considered ineligible.Financing options will need to include grant funding, but there is also a need to develop market mechanisms for sustainable development (MMSDs) that will allow farmers and rural communities to benefit from such initiatives and have an elaborate livelihood strategy. On-farm mitigation Improved management practices that reduce on-farm emissions include livestock and manure management, fertilizer management, and improved rice cultivation. Methods to reduce methane emissions from enteric fermentation include enhancing the efficiency of digestion with improved feeding practices and dietary additives.The efficacy of these methods depends on the quality of feed, livestock breed and age, and also whether the livestock is grazing or stall-fed. Developing countries are assumed to provide lower quality feed to livestock, which raises the emissions rate per animal to over that for developed country herds(Smith et al. , 2007). In manure management, cooling and using solid covers for storage tanks and lagoons, separating solids from slurry,and capturing the methane emitted are relevant techniques.Concerning developing countries, applying thissort of manure management may be difficult as animalexcretion happens in the field. Composting manure andaltering feeding practices may help reduce emissions to acertain extent. Improving the efficiency of fertilizer application or switching to organic production can decrease the amount of nutrientload and Nitrous(ii)Oxide emissions. However, overall benefitswould need to be weighed against the potential impact onyield(Smith et al. , 2007). Sustainable Agriculture and Sustainable DevelopmentIn addition to reducing GHG emissions, agricultural mitigation measures have other social, economic and environmental benefits, particularly in regard to sustainable development, food security and making progress towards meeting the objectives of the Millennium Development Goals. The list of co-benefits linked to soil carbon sequestration include reduced soil erosion, improved soil fertility and structure, improved water qualit y, reduced levels of phosphorous and nitrogen pollution, buffering against drought and improved agricultural performance.Another mitigation strategy is considered to be the displacement of fossil fuels through the production of cleaner-burning bioenergy, such as ethanol, biogas, and methane, which can all be derived from agricultural production. Securing food for a growing population is a major global concern for developing countries and is a primary objective of agricultural policies. As such, mitigating climate change must not result in reduced food production (FAO, 2008). There are limits to GHG emissions reductions in the agricultural sector because of its importance in providing food for a growing global population.Improvements in efficiency may be a more reasonable approach than absolute reductions in developing countries GHG emissions from agriculture. Linking Mitigation and Adaptation Efforts Formally defined, adaptation to climate change is an adjustmentmade to a human, eco logical or physical systemin response to a perceived vulnerability (Smith et al. , 2007). Agriculture is a sector that can be used to link mitigation and adaptation policies and actions. Many mutually reinforcing synergies exist between specific mitigation and adaptation solutions that can lead to more efficient allocation of â€Å"climate response† resources (FAO, 2008).Synergies may occur in cases where mitigation-driven actions in agriculture have positive adaptation consequences for example, carbon sequestration projects with positive drought preparedness aspects or when adaptation-driven actions have positive consequences for mitigation for example, residue return to fields to improve water holding capacity will also sequester carbon (Smith et al. , 2007). A large proportion of the mitigation potential of agriculture arises from soil carbon sequestration, which has strong synergies with sustainable agriculture.Linking adaptation and mitigation measures have both positive andnegative aspects, depending on national circumstances and agricultural systems. In addition, many farmers may be ill-equipped to adapt or may notunderstand the risks that climate change imposes. As a result,information sharing, such as that involving climateforecasting, will likely play an integral part in managingclimate change risk. A future climate regime should encourage countries to recognize and enhance positive impacts. Such measures include the following; * Changes in tillage practices or adjusted livestock breeds are short-term measures. Longer-term measures, such as improved water management or the building of irrigation systems, can help in adapting to a changing climate. * Supporting policies that promote adaptation measures can help towards more effective implementation. * Modes of external assistance range from allocating information, advice, and training on adaptation measures, to developing institutional capacities and policies. * Adaptation is not a stand-alone activity, and its integration into development projects, plans, policies, and strategies will be crucial. * Synergies between mitigation and adaptation should be maximized.Adaptation options and their supporting policies should be adopted by the appropriate level of government and implemented by institutions in direct contact with beneficiaries. For example, adaptation responses such as changing planting dates and tillage practices may require technicalservices provided by local extension agents, which are coordinatedby regional universities and research institutions. Agricultural research, including crop breeding to developdrought and heat tolerant crop varieties, will require bothpublic and private investment. Structural adaptation measures,such as creating water arkets and price incentives,will need to be implemented on a national level, most likelyin partnership with economic cooperation unions. National governments, NGOs and the international community all have a role to play i n creatingthe means and cooperation required for adaptation. Conclusion In general, agriculture impacts climate change significantly through livestock productionand the conversion of forest to land cover that haslow carbon sink or sequestration potential. Nitrous oxideemissions from crop production and methane from riceproduction are also significant.Mitigation options thatare the most technically and economically feasible includebetter rice, crop- and pastureland management. Although there are viable mitigation technologies in the agricultural sector, particularly in developing countries,some key constraints need to be overcome. First, rules of access which still do not credit developing countries forreducing emissions by avoiding deforestation or improving soil carbon sequestration must be changed. Second,operational rules, with their high transaction costs for developingcountries and small farmers and foresters in particular,must be streamlined.Climate change is also likely to ha ve a significant negative impact on agricultural production, prompting outputreductions that will greatly affect parts of the developing world. Adaptation, including crop choice and timing, hasthe ability to partially compensate for production declinesin all regions. In addition, to date, only a limited number of studies have focused on theclimate change and carbon fertilization effects related tocrops of importance to the rural poor, such as root crops and millet. As a result of changes in production, food security will beaffected by climate change.Even the most aggressive mitigation efforts that can reasonably be anticipated cannot be expected to make asignificant difference in the short-term. This means thatadaptation is an imperative. Yet, in the face of this imperative,many developing countries are lacking in sufficientadaptive capacity(FAO, 2008). As a result, there is a large role for nationalgovernments, NGOs, and international institutionsto play in building the necessary a daptive capacity and riskmanagement structures. Finally, climate change adaptation and mitigation have to proceed simultaneously.Since adaptation becomes costlierand less effective as the magnitude of climate changesincreases, mitigation of climate change remains essential. The greater the level of mitigation that can be achieved at affordable costs, the smaller the burden placed on adaptation. Policies focused on mitigating GHG emissions, if carefully designed, can help generate a new developmentstrategy; one that encourages the creation of new value inpro-poor investments by increasing the profitability of environmentallysustainable practices.To achieve this goal,it will be necessary to streamline the measurement andenforcement of offsets, financial flows, and carbon creditsfor investors. It will also be important to enhance globalfinancial facilities and to reform their governance, namelyto simplify rules and to increase the funding flows for mitigationin developing countries. we know what to do,and it is therefore the right time to act before it is too late. It is so unfortunate to see people dying from famine in the 21st century.Climate change may worsen this situation, therefore we should cooperate toghether to ensure thatthe global issue of climate change is handled in a manner that it deserves. Agriculture is just one of those options especially by the developing countries. REFERENCES 1) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) (2008) [Available online at http://cdm. unfccc. int/index. html] DATE accessed 20th November 2012. 2) IPCC (2007) Summary for policy makers. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change. [Available online at http://www. pcc. ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm. pdf ]. Date accessed 19th November 2012. 3) FAO, 2008. â€Å"Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation: Challenges and Opportunities for Food Security. † Paper presented at the High Level Confere nce on World Food Security 4) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2008). Financial mechanism for adaptation to and mitigation of climate change in the food and agriculture sectors. Paper presented at the High Level Conference on World Food Security 5) Smith, P. , Martino, D. , Cai, Z. , Gwary, D. , Janzen, H. , Kumar, P. , McCarl, B. Ogle, S. , O’Mara, F. , Rice, C. , Scholes, B. , & Sirotenko, O. (2007). Agriculture. In B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P. R. Bosch, R. Dave & L. A. Meyer (Eds. ), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 6) Smith, P. , D. Martino, Z. Cai, D. Gwary, H. Janzen, P. Kumar, B. McCarl, S. Ogle, F. O’Mara, C. Rice, B. Scholes, O. Sirotenko, M. Howden, T. McAllister, G. Pan, V. Romanenkov, U. Schneider, S. Towprayoon, M. Wattenbach and J.Smith, 2008. â€Å"Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. † pp. 789-813. 7) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (2009). Copenhagen Accord. Conference of the Parties. Accessed at http://unfccc. int/resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/l07. pdf. 8) UNFCCC, 2008. Challenges and Opportunities for Mitigation in the Agricultural Sector. Technical Paper. FCCC/TP/2008/8. http://www. unfccc. int/resource/docs/2008/tp/08. pdf. Date accessed 20th November 2012. 9) World Bank. (2008). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington, D. C. : World Bank.

Living Apart Together

1. Living Apart Together, also called L. A. T, is a unique phenomenon that through modern time has become more and more popular among couples. The purpose of L. A. T is that a couple, which either are married, engaged or boyfriend and girlfriend, who has an intimate relationship but the couple lives separately on separate addresses. LAT relationships is increasingly understood and also accepted in public. It is seen by most people, as good enough partnership and the couples still remain the same expectations about the commitment and loyalty as marriage or cohabitation.Text 2, ‘’Home Alone Together’’ written by Jill Brooke, focuses on pro and cons statements from both experts and from quite ordinary people. Jeannette Lofas, who is a clinical social worker and the founder of the Stepfamily Foundation, is pro living apart together. She thinks it could be a great solution to blended families because ‘’blended families are so vulnerable to interneci ne resentments and power struggles’’. Some couples, especially young couples, which are in a L. A.T relationship is because of commitment problems. That is why Gail Sheehy, who is an author and writer of the book ‘’Sex and the seasoned Woman’’, also agrees Another advocator (FIN SAMKÆD) of L. A. T relationships is Judye Hess who is a family therapist in Berkeley, California. According to Judye Hess are there to many couples that are trying way to hard to fit into a model of the perfect relationship, and that does not always work out and the solution of that problem could be a L. A. T relationship.In text 3, ‘’Just What Modern Romance Needs: ‘’Living Apart Together’’ ’’ written by Gary Picariello, Living Apart Together is explained as a new term for couples who just don’t want to commit. Gary Picariello is con Living Apart Together, because he don’t think that it is a good solution to a couple who are not good at compromising, negotiation and commitments, as he explains ‘’having their own space to retreat to during the rough times in a relationship could mean that the individual will continue to be not so good at compromise, negotiation, and/or commitment’’.Gary Picariello actually can see a good point in living apart because then when the couple are together then they appreciate their togetherness even more when they do get together. 2. In the third text, ‘’Just What Modern Romance Needs: ‘’Living Apart Together’’ ‘’, Gary Picariello writes as if he is talking directly to the reader (GODT) as if he has to convince the reader. But when he writes in that style, the text, in this case, gets more ordinary and a conversation, he askes question to the reader ‘’So what’s the deal with ‘’Living Apart Together? ’ ‘’ and it make s Gary Picariello’s writing style is very similar to if he should write an essay. 3. In text 1, ‘’Couples that live apart†¦stay together’’ is written by Rosemary Bennett and presents some advantages by living apart. When a couple, one or both partners, have children from previous relationships, then it would be easier to preserve structure and routines if the partners live apart from each other.Some people, who have been through a divorce, find a new boyfriend or girlfriend, and if they have children from the previous relationship, they can be hesitating about the new boyfriend living with the children.A divorce can be rather though to children and when a new man or woman comes in their life they respond on different ways, they either likes them or they do not fancy them at all. If the children do not fancy them, a L. A. T relationship can be the best solution. But the consequence of not living together can be trust issues, when a couple is in a L. A. T relationship it is necessary that the same trust and commitment, as in a relationship where they live together, otherwise the relationship can not work out.

Critiquing nursing research Essay

Through the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) code of professional conduct (NMC, 2004) nurses supply high standards of care to patients and clients. One code nurses adhere to is clause 6 which pronounces nurses must maintain professional knowledge and competence, have a responsibility to deliver care based on current evidence, best practice and validated research (NMC, 2004). Validated research involves critiquing and acquiring the skills of synthesis and critical analysis, this enables nurses to distinguish the relationship between theory and practice in nursing (Hendry & Farley 1998). This assignment will critique the research paper â€Å"Patients’ case – notes: look but don’t touch† written by Bebbington, Parkin, James, Chichester and Kubiak (2003) (Appendix 1) using Benton and Comack’s (2000) framework (Appendix 2). This was selected because of the publicity that surrounds hospital acquired infection (Barrett, 2005). TitleThe framework suggests the title should be concise, informative, clearly specify the content and indicate the research approach. The title of the paper is concise; however it gives no information of content or research subject. Moreover the research approach is unidentified consequently the reader is unsure what kind of research has been performed, perhaps an alternate title could have been â€Å"Case notes, do they pass infection: A quantitative study†. This may indicate that the authors have not used a standard format which Benton (2000) states reports should follow; nevertheless the title captured the imagination of the reader and warrants further reading. AuthorsAccording to the framework, the author(s) should possess appropriate academic and professional qualifications and experience; this according to Carter & Porter (2000) establishes integrity. The qualifications and experiences of the authors are not documented. This could indicate the authors have no relevant qualifications or experiences in this field. However further reading identifies where the authors work which could be relevant to their subject, although there is no indication of their occupation. However the reader performed an online search and found the authors have had previous papers published suggesting research experience,  which gives confidence in their abilities. AbstractThe framework states an abstract should be included, should identify the research problem, state the hypotheses, outline the methodology, give details of the sample subjects and report major findings. The abstract is included and is outlined which makes it distinctive and captures the attention. Burns and Grove (2003) states this helps to influence the reader to read the remainder of the report. Additionally a distinctive abstract is beneficial for a rapid summary (Parahoo, 1997). The search question is included and is noticed immediately on the first line. Also incorporated are the methodology, sample subjects and major findings. Yet they do not state the hypothesis. The abstract is clear and precise which gives the reader belief in the capability of the researches. IntroductionThe framework indicates the introduction should clearly identify the problem, include a rationale and state any limitations. The problem is identifiable and the rational is included, nevertheless the reader would have liked to see these presented earlier in the introduction. Dempsey & Dempsey (2000) concur and states the research problem should be identified early and Polit & Beck (2004) add that readers profit from learning the problem immediately. The authors did not indicate any limitations which could suggest inexperience or could question their professional responsibility (Polit & Beck, 2004), however the reader perceives a limitation as being only one study of hospital inpatients notes have been reported thus only one study to compare findings. Literature reviewThe, framework indicates the literature review should be current, identify the underlying theoretical framework, produce a balanced evaluation of material and to look for absent references. The authors’ literature reviews produce twelve references which range from 1967 to 2002, four were classed as outdated (Burns & Grove, 2003) and nine were classed current. Although the reference from 1967 is outdated it is reasonable the authors included it since it is the only research paper found on their particular subject. However this causes the reader to speculate the reason this subject was studied. Because the authors and the reader did not  discover any other literature concerned with the subject this, could indicate that the authors’ literature search was comprehensive which could prove validity of the study. However it is wondered if other researches believed case notes were irrelevant compared to other objects in the hospital or if this is ground breaki ng research. Improvement could have been made by the authors including the search engines they had used as this would allow replication and evaluation of the paper. The literature the authors cited used a quantitative approach as did the authors themselves thus identifying and employing the underlying theoretical framework and giving credibility to the paper. Cutlcliff & Ward (2003) suggests the literature review guides the researcher in discussing the results of the study in terms of agreement or non agreement with other studies, however there is no evidence of evaluation of material that supports or challenges the position being proposed .This suggests the researches appear to have only reported the finding of other studies and not examined the material, which, Peat (2001) states is essential for making decisions about whether or not to change practice on the basis of published report. The outcome is a research paper without critical analysis which Beyea & Nicoll (1998) states is central to the delivery of evidence based patient care. Following duplication of the researches literature search using their keywords the reader could find no important references omitted which leads to the belief that they performed the search methodically. However it was discovered that one important reference in the text (Semmelweis) had been omitted in the reference list. This leads the reader to question if other things may also have been omitted resulting in an unsound paper. The hypothesisThe framework asks if the hypothesis is capable of testing and if the hypothesis is unambiguous. There is no hypothesis in the paper only a research question. Cormack (2000) states that hypothesis can only be stated for studies which predict a relationship between two variables. Polic & Becks (2004) concur and believe hypotheses are predictions of expected outcomes. Since the authors do not state an expectation of the outcome they did not need to incorporate a hypothesis. This could suggest an understanding of research giving the reader faith in their capabilities. Operational definitionsThe framework suggests the terms used in the research problem should be clearly defined. The terms that the author’s employ are clearly defined and can be found effortlessly. Nevertheless they are very limited in respect of the paper and the reader speculated how they found eleven of the twelve references using the keywords since they related to other objects. This could indicate that they decided upon key words prior to performing the literature research, thus limiting their search (Tarling & Crofts, 2002) which questions the validity of the paper. The reader searched Blackwell Synergy using own keywords such as hospital equipment, contamination and bacteria. Many more articles were discovered indicating the authors did not perform an adequate literature search. MethodologyThe framework indicates that the methodology should clearly state the research approach, appropriate to the research problem and if strengths and weaknesses are noted. Although the authors do not identify the study as quantitative the reader understands that it is since it uses findings that can be measured and deals with quantity of results as opposed to interpretation (Munhall, 2001). Additionally the reader believed it is a deductive study since the authors looked at cross infection and objects in the hospital setting and narrowed it down to cross infection and case notes. No strengths or weaknesses were acknowledged, which, Byrne (1998) states is needed so the reader can ascertain if the research is valid. Furthermore the authors state they sampled the spine of the case notes because this is where most hand contact occurs while reading them, however perhaps it could have been suggested sampling the inside since in, my experience, this is where most hand contact occurs. The researches also stated they did not wash their hands until the last set of notes had been tested because it simulates the typical daily handling of notes by HCW’s. However the Department of health (2000) state before and after patient contact hands should be washed, consequently the validity of their approach is questionable. Finally the reader would have liked the researches to explain why the notes were incubated at 37 degrees since an assumption could be made that they are simulating a hospital environment. SubjectsThe framework suggests the subjects should be clearly identified in  the title abstract and methodology. In this paper there are no subjects only case notes. However the reader would have liked there to be a rationale why the authors chose case notes as this according Polit & Beck (2004) gives the reader an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the sampling plan. Sample selectionThe framework suggests the selection approach is congruent to the methodology, clearly stated and if sample size is clearly stated. It appears that convenience sampling was utilised though this is not clear; Burns & Grove (2003) suggest this approach should be avoided however as it provides the opportunity for bias. Since the sample selection method is unclear, it may have been inappropriate, denoting further flaws which affect the remainder of the paper. The sample size is clearly stated however but should have been included in the methodology giving the reader a reference when reading it. Data collectionThe framework asks if the data collection procedures are adequately described. The authors describe the data collection procedure as recorded and analysed. This gives the reader no understanding of how the data was collected, who document it, who interpreted it and where it was stored. This could have implications on the results since there may have been weaknesses in these areas such as the reliability of the collection tools, if the people who recorded and analysis it had training and if there could there be any contamination to the notes. Ethical considerationsThe framework asks if the study involves humans has the study received ethics committee approval, if informed consent was sought, if confidentiality was assured and anonymity guaranteed. Although the study does not directly involve human subject’s research involving personal information relating to human subjects requires the approval of the local ethics committee. (Cormack, 2000)(Royal college of physicians, 1998) The authors make no reference these three ethical codes so it is unknown if the patients agreed to their case notes being tested. This implies no consideration of ethical issues from the authors and questions what other considerations they have overlooked. ResultsAccording to the framework the results should be clearly presented, internally consistent, have sufficient detail to enable the reader to judge, and asks how much confidence can be placed in the finding. The results that the authors present are unclear and misleading since the first two lines state 227/228 case notes contained bacteria; however it continues to inform that most were â€Å"environmental†. The authors use a table to portray their results which Crooks & Davis (1998) suggests is all that is needed to convey information. However the table appears complex, confusing and impossible to understand; therefore the reader would question the internal consistency. In addition since the results are difficult to interpret the reader can not judge the reliability of the findings. Data analysisThe framework states the approach should be appropriate to the type of data collected, statistical analysis should be correctly performed, should be sufficient analysis to decide whether significant differences are not caused by differences in other relevant variables and if the complete information is reported. The authors approach was appropriate to the type of data collected since no other approach would be suitable. Nevertheless the researches do not state how they analysed the statistics so the reader can not judge any limitations. DiscussionThe framework states the discussion should be balanced, drawn on previous research, weaknesses of the study acknowledged and clinical implications discussed. The discussion is not balanced since it focus upon the findings of pathogenic bacteria on case notes and subsequently formulates assumptions about MRSA surviving on case notes without research to back this up. It vaguely draws upon the only previous research and mentions the result, which contradicts their own findings. No failings or limitations of the study or literature review are recognized implying no review or evaluation of the literature, which, according to Benton & Cormack (2000) is central to the research process. One clinical implication is discussed briefly however the reader should remember that the authors have not proved the transmission of bacteria on case notes to HCW’s hands only the potential. ConclusionThe framework asks if the conclusions are supported by the results obtained. The conclusion the authors established was the possibility of transferring bacteria, however since the results are indecipherable it is impossible to determine if the conclusions are supported by the results. RecommendationThe framework states the recommendations should suggest further areas for research, and identify how any weaknesses in the study design could be avoided in future research. There is no suggestion for further research; no weaknesses in the study design mentioned and no recommendations on how issues can be avoided. Therefore the reader believes this paper does not establish contamination from case notes, so is unreliable and lacks validity. Application to practiceThe Department of Health (2005) states Clinical governance is the system through which National Health Service organisations are accountable for continuously improving the quality of their services and safeguarding high standards of care. Elcoat (2000) adds evidence-based practice and evidence-based nursing have very strong positions in the Clinical Governance agenda of quality improvement. Evidence-based practice can be defined as using contemporaneous best evidence ensuring actions are clinically appropriate cost effective and result in positive outcomes for patients (Trinder & Reynolds, 2000). Therefore every healthcare team member has to critique evidence, assess its reliability and application before combining it with their own clinical expertise (DePoy & Gitlin, 1998). Before knowing how to critique I did not understand why nurses had to review articles and I would have taken them on face value, however since critiquing this article I have realized it is a very important part of my practice and taking articles on face value is unsafe practice. The authors discussed some important issues concerning cross infection and as a consequence I have reflected more on cross infection in my clinical area. This leads me to believe that every research paper is of value and has something to give to the reader. However the article will have little impact on my practice since the recommendation of hand washing before and after patient contact is already integrated in my nursing practice. References Barrett , S. P. (2005). What’s new in infection control? Medicine Publishing Company,33(3), i-iii. Retrieved July 5, 2006, from http://www.atyponlink.com/MPC/doi/abs/10.1383/medc.2005.33.3.iBebbington, A., Parkin, P.A., Chichester, L. J., & Kubiak, E. M. (2003). Patients’case notes: look but don’t touch. Journal of Hospital Infection. 55, (4). Benton, D., & Cormack, D. (2000). Reviewing and evaluating the literature. In D. Cormack (Ed.). The research process in nursing (4th ed.). Oxford, UK:Blackwell Science. Beyea. S, Nicoll, L. (1998). Writing an integrative review. Association ofpreoperative Registered Nurses Journal. 67, 4, 877-880. Burns, N., & Grove, S. (2003). Understanding nursing research (3rd ed.). Philadelphia:SaundersByrne, D. W. (1998). Publishing medical research. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins. Carter, D. & Porter, S. (2000). Validity and reliability. In D. Cormack (Ed.), Theresearch process in nursing (4th ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science. Cormack , D. (Ed.). (2000). The research process in nursing (4th ed.). Oxford: BlackwellPublishing. Crookes, P. A., & Davies, S. (Eds.). (2004). Research into practice: essential skills forreading and applying research in nursing and health care. Edinburgh: Baillià ¨reTindall. Cutcliffe, J. R., & Ward, M. (Eds.). (2003). Critiquing nursing research. Wiltshire: M A Healthcare Limited. Dempsey, P., & Dempsey, A. (2000). Understanding nursing research; process, critical appraisal & utilization (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Department of health. (2001). The Epic project: developing national evidence-basedguidelines for preventing healthcare associated infections, phase 1: guidelines forpreventing hospital-acquired infections .Journal of Hospital Infections 47 (suppl): S1-82Department of Health. (2005). Clinical Governance. Retrieved July 12, 2006,fromhttp://www.dh.gov.uk/PolicyAndGuidance/HealthAndSocialCareTopics/ClinicalGovernance/fs/enDePoy, E., & Gitlin, L. N. (1998). Introduction to research: understanding and applying multiple strategies. Philadelphia: MosbyElcoat, D. (2000). Clinical Governance in action: key issues in clinical effectiveness. Professional Nurse.18 (10). Hendry, C., & Farley, A. (1998). Reviewing the literature: a guide for students. Nursing Standard. 12(44). Munhall, P. L. (2001). Nursing research: a qualitative perspective (3rd ed.). Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Nursing & Midwifery council. (2004). Code of professional conduct. London: Nursing & Midwifery council. Peat, J. (2001). Health science research; a handbook of quantitative methods. London: Sage. Parahoo, K. (1997). Nursing research: principles, process and issues. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Trinder, L., & Reynolds, S. (2000). Evidence-based Practice. A Critical Appraisal.

Personal Statement for law school, Why do you want to go to law school Essay

Personal Statement for law school, Why do you want to go to law school - Essay Example After I saved enough money I went back to India on vacation to visit my father and family. When I was back in my home nation as an adult I saw things very differently that was a kid. Everything had changed for the worst. There was a horrible distribution between classes divided by small elite class and the rest of us who were stuck in deep poverty. Governmental corruption was latent and it seemed nobody in the system care about nothing but themselves. Serving the people was not a priority of the public servants. Restaurants would throw away food that could have given at the end of the night to the poor; the Indian society was in chaos in need of direction, order and justice. I reflected a lot during my stay in India and came back to the United States a new person. I was inspired to become a solution maker that brought change. I knew I had to continue my formal education at the undergraduate level to then move on to law school. As a lawyer I could gained the knowledge to be able chang e the public system. I want to fight injustices anywhere they manifest themselves. The trip to India changed my perspective of life. I realized I had taken for granted the liberties and opportunities people in the United States enjoy. This society built its democratic system based on set of laws and principles written in the constitution. Lawyers are important members of a society that protect the rights of the regular citizen. They law plays an instrumental role in the lives of everyone because it brings stability to a region. I had not noticed this before because I was unaware of the injustices that occur in many developing countries around the world. In order to prepare myself for a future as a lawyer I choose to study business administration with majors in accounting and finance at Hofstra University. Business school is a great way for a

Presentation to Arizona Task Force on Policy and Planning Assignment

Presentation to Arizona Task Force on Policy and Planning - Assignment Example First and foremost, although the definition of sustainable transportation varies, many definitions tend to allude to reduced dependence on automobiles, increased use of public mass transit and increased use of non-motorized forms of transport such as bicycles and walking. Black (2004) particularly defines sustainable transportation as the transport system that is able to meet the current mobility and transport needs without compromising the ability of ability of the future generations to be able to meet such needs. However, Black (2004) argues that the contemporary transport systems are currently being hindered from becoming sustainable by a number of factors some of which include diminishing petroleum reserves, global atmospheric impacts of the transport systems, congestion and fatalities among others. There are a number of reasons why I feel that a paradigmatic shift in the current Arizona transport planning is urgently needed. Although Arizona like many other states has always depended on the mobility planning approach to develop its transport policies, this approach is increasingly becoming unsustainable due to wide range of emerging issues including environmental pollution concerns, diminishing petroleum reserves, congestion and rising fatalities and increased urban sprawl among others. Accessibility planning approach primarily focuses on regulating land use arrangements in order to reduce the travelling needs of the members of the society. In many parts of the United States, this may include jobs-housing balance (such as by locating housing near potential workplaces), developing transit villages as well as encouraging sustainable forms of transport such as mass transit, bicycles and pedestrianism. Compared to the â€Å"mobility† approach that is largely concerned with enhancing the ability of commuters to travel fast,

Public and User Involvement in Health Care Essay

Public and User Involvement in Health Care - Essay Example Some recently published official reports admit that the government could not effectively convince people to give up bad health behaviours like consumption of unhealthy food and alcoholic beverages. Evidently this health trend would negatively contribute to the overall wellbeing of the UK population, and the government would lose millions of pounds for nothing. This paper will describe why educating people on the health risks of certain behaviours may not necessarily help reduce such risks. To make the points clear, this paper will give particular attention to certain behaviours like alcohol addiction, smoking, substance abuse, fast food consumption, premarital sex, and sexual promiscuity. The UK government spends a notable percent of its revenues on health awareness programmes with intent to eliminate future healthcare costs. The government tries to promote positive health messages mainly through television Ads because majority of the UK citizens spend a considerable amount of their time on TV programmes. The UK government jointly operates with many social interest organisations to control unhealthy behaviours like alcohol consumption and smoking in the society. As part of these health campaigns, health authorities and other volunteer groups organise road shows and other major promotional events to influence people. While analysing the UK government’s health spending over the last few decades, it seems that the government spent largely on the promotion of healthy food patterns. Since 1997, the UK government has been introducing a series of high-profile health campaigns to improve food pattern, â€Å"including Health Action Zones in poor food areas, the five-a -day fruit and vegetables campaign, the school fruit programme, and the change4life campaign on obesity† (Hickman, . 2010). However reports indicate that spending of millions of pounds of public money on these health campaigns has had little effect on the overall public

MGT302 - Org. Behavior and Teamwork CA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

MGT302 - Org. Behavior and Teamwork CA - Essay Example Unfortunately, it takes a certain mix of educated thought processes and considerations to be able to make the best decision that would apply to a given situation. The article entitled, â€Å"Herb’s Concoction (and Martha’s Dilemma): The Case of the Deadly Fertilizer,† Customer Affairs Department personnel Martha Wang needs to decide on how to handle information from a customer complaint claiming that the best-selling product of their company, Herb’s Garden, allegedly caused the death of the customer’s animal. Thus, Martha needs to make what is called a non-programmed decision. Non-programmed decisions are so unique and important that they require conscious thinking, information gathering, and careful consideration of alternatives. This is in contrast with programmed decisions which occur frequently enough that one already develops an automated response to them. . Martha faces quite a dilemma in this case. First, she herself has had a previous experience that is similar to the issue being raised by the customer. However, when she addressed this issue to upper management, it was simply dismissed as being a case of an overreacting customer. Furthermore, the company’s owner personally requested Martha to take care of the situation. in such a crucial situation, individuals may be overwhelmed by the pressure that they face. Therefore, Martha must carefully analyze the situation and weigh all alternatives to come up with the best option. Furthermore, in turning decision making into a more manageable affair, Bauer and Erdogan (2005) suggest that one asks the following questions: For Martha, the necessary first step would be to do some background research. She could try to look into the company’s history in terms of customer feedback, especially concerning the particular product which is Herb’s Special Fertilizer Mix. If she feels that there is indeed sufficient customer complaints similar to the one brought up by the client that

Chines Leisure Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Chines Leisure Industry - Essay Example Similarly, gardening or cooking which can be considered a leisure activity for many, but that does not necessarily mean it is one for a gardener or a chef. Defining leisure is very difficult because of its complexities. Any activity that people enjoy doing after completing their obligations, which causes relaxation and peace of mind, can be considered a leisure activity. Because of its abstract nature, it is difficult to name all leisure activities. Leisure activities are likely to keep changing with time but it will always be something that a person enjoys doing and brings them happiness. The leisure industry refers to an industry that is closely related to people's leisure lifestyle, leisure activities and leisure requirements, including primarily the economic forms and industry systems such as entertainment, tourism, service, culture and sports industries, and groups that are generated from such industries (Yan, 2006). The People's Republic of China is the third largest country in the world in terms of area, and the first largest in terms of population (China National Tourism Administration). Until a few years ago, the leisure industry in China was unheard of. However, with changing times, this concept has been flourishing rapidly. Leisure and vacations have become very common and attracted the attention of many citizens and governmental organizations. According to statistics from China's National Tourism Administration, as a major representative of the leisure industry, China's domestic tourism industry recorded 1.2 billion in tourist volume and 768.6 billion Yuan in total tourism revenue in 2005, and has been growing ever since. Because the tourism industry is a significant impulse to consumption and economic growth, twenty-four Chinese provinces now consider the tourism industry as a pillar industry, or a leading industry (Yan, 2006). As many as twenty-four of China's thirty-one provinces, muni cipalities and autonomous regions have made tourism one of their leading industries, encouraging greater consumer spending in leisure activities (Access Asia, 2004). As China's consumer market expands, government and private companies are looking to exploit areas of potential opportunity in the theme and amusement park industry. The Chinese government recognizes the potentially massive boost that increased domestic demand. While foreign direct investment (FDI) provides valuable income, it cannot be compared with surging urban spending in the country's wealthy coastal provinces. Major cities down the eastern seaboard are home to China's expanding urban middle class younger generation of consumers with rising disposable income and an increasing tendency to spend rather than save. While, well to do consumers can afford to travel to other parts of the country on holidays, a vast majority of consumers look for entertainment destinations close to home. These typically include zoos and wildlife parks, aquariums and marine parks, and theme and amusement parks (Access Asia, 2004). Hence, the demand for this kind of entertainment has been increasing, and this industry has seen a rapid growth. Chinese theme parks advocate seeing the world through the ideas upon which many of the theme parks are built. Their aim is to promote and educate people on Chinese culture as well as world cultures. The parks portray beautiful sceneries, architectural

Catholicism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Catholicism - Essay Example The rise of Catholicism began gaining roots especially in the 16th Century when the protestant reformation started contravening the spirit and the beliefs of the common Christian doctrine that was in existence. Catholicism remains a strong force in the world today but its influence has been tremendously reduced. The history of Catholicism relates with the influential Roman Empire. During this time, the system of leadership was one that integrated both secular and church leadership together; the Pope was seen as a very important political and religious figure. Through his research Dr Paul Coulter established that the Roman emperor leadership was influenced by the conversion of its leaders, for example Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity in 312, he went ahead to legalize Christianity in the empire. Around 590, Gregory the Great became Pope at a time when the Roman Empire had collapsed and the clergy were very active in leadership all across Western Europe. Gregory emphasized on the role of Pope as a universal leader by using biblical interpretations, by then the bible was exclusively in the hands of the Pope. The spirit of Catholicism grew by far and wide and spread across Europe. Martin Luther who was an Augustinian monk around 1517 read the scripture and presented his interpretations to a door of Wittenberg cathedral thereby sparking a revolution that resulted to the Protestant Reformation (Coulter 4). The doctrine behind Catholicism is founded on the Bible, a holy book that is revered for its historical as well as current view. Historically, the Catholic Pope the only person who had a chance to interact with the Bible and deliver its teachings to the masses, this made the church very influential to the daily lives of people at that time. The Pope was able to challenge every authority but he could not be challenged by anybody himself. Galileo Galilei had to persuade the church authorities that the heliocentrism theory he had developed was not against the bible, this was after the Pope disputed the theory claiming it was unbiblical. To date the Bible remains a supreme doctrine among the Catholics, however its interpretation has brought some contention especially among scholars. Because of the interpretation, various factions of the Catholic Church have come up with divergent beliefs (Boettner 25). Recently, the issue of celibacy has been refuted by some catholic clergy who have gone ahead to marry despite the regulation by the church not to do so. It has emerged that celibacy has been based on the church traditions and not actually the teachings in the bible (Jones 14). The core teachings of the Catholic Church are diversified but remains to be the same; this is characterized by the conservatism that the church has tried to adopt over the ages. They believe in one universal true church, a conviction that is constantly recited in the apostle’s creed that is part of the belief in the church. The Pope is a very supreme author ity according to Catholicism; he represents the church as the ‘Vicar of Christ’, a continuation of the leadership of Peter, the apostle in the early church. The decisions by the church leadership are highly regarded and are used as a benchmark for ethics and spirituality. The tradition of the church outstands and is used as the

Mobile Technology Essay Example for Free

Mobile Technology Essay Mobile technology is the technology used for cellular communication. Mobile code division multiple access (CDMA) technology has evolved rapidly over the past few years. Since the start of this millennium, a standard mobile device has gone from being no more than a simple two-way pager to being a mobile phone, GPS navigation device, an embedded web browser and instant messaging client, and a handheld game console. Many experts argue that the future of computer technology rests in mobile computing with wireless networking. Mobile computing by way of tablet computers are becoming more popular. The most popular tablet at the moment is the iPad, by Apple. Tablets are available on the 3G and 4G networks. Contents 1 4G networking 2 Operating systems 3 Channel hogging and file sharing 4 Future of smartphone 5 External links 6 References 4G networking One of the most important features in the [4G] mobile networks is the domination of high-speed packet transmissions or burst traffic in the channels. The same codes used in the 2G-3G networks will be applied to future 4G mobile or wireless networks, the detection of very short bursts will be a serious problem due to their very poor partial correlation properties. Recent study has indicated that traditional multi-layer network architecture based on the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model may not be well suited for 4G mobile network, where transactions of short packets will be the major part of the traffic in the channels. As the packets from different mobiles carry completely different channel characteristics, the receiver should execute all necessary algorithms, such as channel estimation, interactions with all upper layers and so on, within a very short time to make the detections of each packet flawless and even to reduce the clutter of traffic. Operating systems Many types of mobile operating systems (OS) are available for smartphones, including: Android, BlackBerry OS, webOS, iOS, Symbian, Windows Mobile Professional (touch screen), Windows Mobile Standard (non-touch screen), and Bada. Among the most popular are the Apple iPhone, and the newest Android. Android is a mobile operating system (OS) developed by Google. Android is the first completely open source mobile OS, meaning that it is free to any cell phone carrier. The Apple iPhone, which has several OSs like the 3G and 3G S, is the most popular smart phone at this time, because of its customizable OS which you can use to download applications (apps) made by Apple like games, GPS, Utilities, and other tools. Any user can also create their own Apps and publish them to Apples App Store. The Palm Pre using webOS has functionality over the Internet and can support Internet-based programming languages such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), HTML, and JavaScript. The Research In Motion (RIM) BlackBerry is a smartphone with a multimedia player and third-party software installation. The Windows Mobile Professional Smartphones (Pocket PC or Windows Mobile PDA) are like that of a personal digital assistant (PDA) and have touchscreen abilities. The Windows Mobile Standard does not have a touch screen but uses a trackball, touchpad, rockers, etc. The original smartphone OS is Symbian, with a rich history and the largest marketshare until 2011. Although no single Symbian device has sold as many units as the iPhone, Nokia and other manufacturers (currently including Sony Ericsson and Samsung, and previously Motorola) release a wide variety of Symbian models each year which gave Symbian the greatest marketshare. Channel hogging and file sharing There will be a hit to file sharing, the normal web surfer would want to look at a new web page every minute or so at 100 kbs a page loads quickly. Because of the changes to the security of wireless networks users will be unable to do huge file transfers because service providers want to reduce channel use. ATT claimed that they would ban any of their users that they caught using peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing applications on their 3G network. It then became apparent that it would keep any of their users from using their iTunes programs. The users would then be forced to find a Wi-Fi hotspot to be able to download files. The limits of wireless networking will not be cured by 4G, as there are too many fundamental differences between wireless networking and other means of Internet access. If wireless vendors do not realize these differences and bandwidth limits, future wireless customers will find themselves disappointed and the market may suffer setback. Future of smartphone The next generation of smartphones are going to be context-aware, taking advantage of the growing availability of embedded physical sensors and data exchange abilities. One of the main features applying to this is that the phones will start keeping track of your personal data, but adapt to anticipate the information you will need based on your intentions. There will be all-new applications coming out with the new phones, one of which is an X-Ray device that reveals information about any location at which you point your phone. One thing companies are developing software to take advantage of more accurate location-sensing data. How they described it was as wanting to make the phone a virtual mouse able to click the real world. An example of this is where you can point the phones camera while having the live feed open and it will show text with the building and saving the location of the building for use in the future. Along with the future of a smart phone comes the future of another device. Omnitouch is a device in which applications can be viewed and used on your hand, arm, wall, desk, or any other everyday surface. The device uses a sensor touch interface, which enables the user to access all the functions through the use of finger touch. It was developed at Carnegie Mellon University. This device uses a projector and camera that is worn on the persons shoulder, with no controls other than the users fingers. Acknowledgment I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. I am highly indebted to (Name of your Organization Guide) for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project also for their support in completing the project. I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents member of (Organization Name)for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project. I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving me such attention and time. My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

Types of Parasites

Types of Parasites Chapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ‘ikan belacak, ‘ikan tembakul or ‘ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by OndraÄ kovà ¡ et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphalloà ¯des cÅ“lomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Krà ¸yer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23†° to 25†° and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water(†°) Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode Types of Parasites Types of Parasites Chapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ‘ikan belacak, ‘ikan tembakul or ‘ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by OndraÄ kovà ¡ et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphalloà ¯des cÅ“lomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Krà ¸yer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23†° to 25†° and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water(†°) Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode